The paper highlights that soil layer turnover remains the most widely used method of primary tillage. Among the existing techniques, smooth plowing without producing back ridges or furrows, which is achieved using reversible plows, best meets the high standards of modern agricultural practices. (Research purpose) The study aims to substantiate the kinematics of soil layer turnover within the boundaries of its own furrow without lateral displacement. (Materials and methods) In analyzing the kinematics, the soil layer is assumed to behave as a cohesive elastic substance undergoing deformation during turnover within its own furrow, without disintegration. This assumption is quite reasonable, as it is well-established that a sodded and moist layer can be extracted as a continuous, intact strip that retains its geometric dimensions when turned 180°. The trajectory of the layer is derived using classical methods of theoretical mechanics. (Results and discussions) The equations governing the motion of the soil layer points during turnover within its own furrow are analyzed. During this process, all points in the cross-section of the layer undergo spatial displacement. Changes in displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the i-th point of the hypothetical layer exhibit smooth dependencies described by trigonometric functions. However, at a rotation angle of ωt = π/2, an abrupt change occurs in the trajectories of displacement, velocity and acceleration graphs, indicating sharply variable loads acting on the soil layer at this point. The abrupt change is attributed to a shift in the support rib which serves as the axis for the rotation of the soil layer's crosssection. The center of gravity of the cross-section moves with variable velocity and acceleration, which indicates the presence of inertial forces. Overcoming these forces requires a certain amount of energy. (Conclusions) The energy required largely depends on the geometric parameters of the layer a, b and its rotation modes (ω). When the layer cross-section rotates by an angle When the layer cross-section rotates by an angle ωt = π/2 – γ, the vertical acceleration of the central point (О) reaches its maximum value. Under certain conditions, the soil layer may detach from the furrow bottom in this position. The kinematics analysis of a soil layer turnover within the boundaries of its own furrow reveals new phenomena occurring during its motion to identifies the patterns of influence that the soil layer's geometric parameters exert on its dynamic characteristics.

The paper highlights efforts by major global engineering companies to develop agricultural robotic systems, with a particular focus on universal unmanned mobile energy vehicles designed to perform technological operations autonomously. Analysis of current machinery for harvesting and preparing flax straw indicates a lack of sufficient automation and robotization in these processes. Among the operations involved in flax harvesting, turning is defined as the least energy-intensive. In this regard, research has begun on the development of a remotely controlled, self-propelled flax windrow turner, with potential for further adaptation to autonomous operation. (Research purpose) The study aims to substantiate the optimal operating modes and develop a power electrical circuit for a remotely controlled, self-propelled flax windrow turner equipped with an electric drive. (Materials and methods) The study provides a theoretical basis for the conveyor's linear speed in relation to the rectilinear motion of the flax turner. (Results and discussions) The study identified the following operating modes for the flax windrow turner: the conveyor's angular velocity was determined to be 4.63 radians per second, with a machine speed of 2.78 meters per second. Considering the machine's weight, 7.00-12 F-42-1 drive wheels were selected, with tires that offer excellent road traction and maneuverability. The drive wheels had a load index of 133, an outer diameter of 660 millimeters, and a profile width of no more than 195 millimeters without load. Additionally, a power electrical circuit was designed for a remotely controlled self-propelled flax windrow turner. (Conclusions) The study determined the operating modes for an electrified radio-controlled, self-propelled flax windrow turner and proposed a powered electrical circuit for designing the units and assemblies of machinery used in flax straw harvesting.

The paper emphasizes that the primary objective of fallow field tillage in summer and pre-sowing soil preparation is to create the most favorable conditions for moisture retention and accumulation within soil layers. (Research purpose) The study aimed to investigate the process of moisture accumulation within soil layers as influenced by the type of working bodies used for continuous tillage of fallow fields. (Materials and methods) The research was conducted in field conditions using an experimental model of a steam cultivator equipped with a roller having a working width of 3 meters, as well as a standard KSOP-4 cultivator for continuous tillage. (Results and discussion) Observations from June to August confirmed that the experimental steam cultivator with a roller effectively prevented the displacement of wet soil layers to the surface, maintaining a volumetric moisture content of 16.42-17.37 percent in the 5-centimeter layer. Moisture accumulation was recorded at various soil depths, with volumetric moisture levels recorded at 28.40-30.48 in the 10-centimeter layer, 30.18-32.82 percent in the 15-centimeter layer, and 26.90-29.38 percent in the 20-centimeter layer. For comparison, continuous tillage using a standard cultivator resulted in the displacement of wet soil layers to the surface, with volumetric moisture levels of 22.62-25.14 percent in the 5-centimeter layer. Moisture accumulation in deeper soil layers decreased, showing 18.57-21.57 percent in the 10-centimeter layer, 14.09-15.58 percent in the 15-centimeter layer, and 22.75-22.21 in the 20-centimeter layer. (Conclusions) The study demonstrated that using specific working bodies for continuous soil cultivation in summer ensures moisture retention within the soil layers. This approach facilitates shallow cultivation to a depth of 4-6 centimeters without exposing wet layers to the surface.

The paper underscores the significant advancements in plant disease diagnostics achieved through the integration of remote sensing technologies and deep learning algorithms, particularly in aerial imagery interpretation. It focuses on evaluating deep learning techniques and unmanned aerial vehicles for crop disease detection. (Research purpose) The study aims to review and systemize scientific literature on the application of unmanned aerial vehicles, remote sensing technologies and deep learning 24 methods for the early detection and prediction of crop diseases. (Materials and methods) The paper presents various technologies employing unmanned aerial vehicles and sensors for monitoring plant condition, with an emphasis on modern computer vision tools designed to improve the accuracy of plant pathology identification. (Results and discussion) The analysis encompasses scientific publications from 2010 to 2023, with a primary focus on comparing the effectiveness of deep learning algorithms, such as convolutional neural networks (CNN), against traditional methods, including support vector machines (SVMs) and random forest classifiers. The findings demonstrate that deep learning algorithms offer more accurate and earlier detection of diseases, highlighting their potential for application in plant growing. The paper also addresses challenges associated with the use of unmanned aerial vehicles, such as data quality limitations, the complexity of processing large volumes of images, and the need for the development of more advanced models. The paper proposes solutions to these issues, including algorithm optimization and improved data preprocessing techniques. (Conclusions) The integration of unmanned aerial vehicles and deep learning provides new prospects for enhancing the efficiency of agricultural production. These technologies enable precise early-stage diagnosis of plant diseases and facilitate the prediction of their progression, allowing for timely implementation of crop protection measures. The combination of intelligent computer vision systems with unmanned aerial vehicles presents significant opportunities for advancing monitoring methods and improving plant health management.

The paper highlights the substantial potential for digitalization in animal husbandry. Current applications of digital technologies include replacing manual data collection on animal phenotypes, particularly linear measurements of physical traits. In creating a contactless digital monitoring system for cattle exterior traits, cameras play a crucial role, as they enable accurate distance measurement to the object. Digital reconstruction of animal body morphometry using a contactless measurement method and automated size determination can effectively address the issues with inaccuracy and subjectivity associated with traditional scoring methods. (Research purpose) The study aims to explore the feasibility of using stereo cameras to measure object distances with the required accuracy and to analyze the performance of the stereo vision system across different areas of the frame. (Materials and methods) The study used a stereo pair of two 1/3-Inch CMOS OV4689 4-megapixel lenses mounted on the board, spaced at 6.3 centimeters from each other. Accurate distance measurement was considered achieved when the error remained within 1-2 percent (1-2 centimeters) of the object's distance (0.5-1 meter). A marked sheet with 25 centimeter intervals served as a test stand, and the stereo cameras captured the stand from distances of 30 to 100 centimeters, with a 10 centimeter increments. (Results and discussion) The study employed two camera configurations over two stages: a single stereo camera and a block of three cameras. Filming results with the single stereo camera showed a measurement error of 5-10 centimeters at distances ranging from 0.3 to 1 meter from the object. For the three-camera block, the accuracy remained comparable. It was found that accuracy was higher at the center of the frame, with an average error of 3 centimeters at viewing angles near zero.(Conclusions) The study confirmed that the number of stereo pairs does not impact accuracy, and the observed error represents the accuracy limit for these stereo pairs in stereo vision applications.

The present study reveals that up to 60 percent of mountain grasslands are strewn with stones. Their removal can significantly expand forage land and decrease animal injuries. It has been found out that there are no small-sized units capable of removing stones on sloped terrains. (Research purpose) The research aims to develop and construct a laboratory prototype of a stone removal unit adapted to the Feng Shou 180 mini-tractor, specifically for use on slopes. This unit is intended to facilitate the rehabilitation of mountain regions that are otherwise unsuitable for livestock farming, and enhance soil resistance to both water and wind erosion. (Materials and methods) The technology has been substantiated and the unit prototype has been constructed. The tests were conducted in the mountainous area of the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania, at an altitude of 1540 meters above sea level. The stones were removed from a section of the northern slope with a steepness of 13 degrees in the village of Dargavs. Technical expertise, bench and field tests of the unit were performed in accordance with agrotechnical standards and technical specifications. (Results and discussion) As a result a laboratory prototype of a stone removal unit adapted to the Feng Shou 180 mini-tractor was produced. It is determined that the laboratory prototype meets the agrotechnical standards and technical specifications. The unit proves to effectively remove stones larger than 30 millimeters with an efficiency rate of 91-93 percent. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that the first year of using the unit results in a 90-95 percent increase in the productivity of forage lands. (Conclusions) The use of this unit on mountain slopes significantly enhances the usable area and improves the water-air and nutrient regimes. This adjustment also alters the species composition of the vegetation, increasing the legume component to 16.7 percent and the cereal component to 47.3 percent. Our findings underscore the potential benefits and feasibility of further developing and deploying this prototype on densely stoned forage lands with slopes of up to 13 degrees.

The paper highlights the significant impact of irrigation on crop yields, emphasizing that in the challenging climatic conditions of the dry-steppe Trans-Volga region, it is impossible to obtain a consistently high alfalfa yield without irrigation. Since irrigation presents both substantial benefits and potential drawbacks, it requires a highly skilled approach to managing irrigated lands and water resources. To estimate the total water consumption of alfalfa in the dry-steppe Trans-Volga region, it is proposed to use bioclimatic coefficients and soil surface activity indicators. (Research purpose) The study aims to determine the total water consumption of alfalfa by using bioclimatic coefficients and active soil surface values to improve the efficiency of irrigation regimes. (Materials and methods) The primary input factors influencing the total water consumption volume were analyzed. Changes in total water consumption during specific phases of alfalfa development were assessed based on evapotranspiration and the relative reserves of productive moisture, using experimental data on the crop's water consumption. (Results and discussion) The empirical coefficients representing the active surface state of alfalfa crops were determined based on the sum of average daily temperatures, calculated using Budyko-Zubenko method for estimating evaporation from the water surface. It was found that the coefficients of active surface state change significantly during plant development, increasing from 0.5 during the growth-branching period to 0.78 during branching-budding and reaching 0.99-1.0 during the budding-flowering period. (Conclusions) Curvilinear relationships between the ratio of total water consumption to evaporation and the relative reserves of productive moisture during different phases of alfalfa growth and development were experimentally established. Empirical coefficients were derived for calculating total water consumption during different periods of alfalfa vegetation grown on dark chestnut soils in the dry steppe Trans-Volga region.

Deep processing enterprises often receive short flax fibers with high moisture content, which must be dried to meet processing requirements. (Research purpose) To investigate the effect of process parameters (speed, drying agent consumption, air injection and vacuum, air temperature in the drying chamber) on the drying time of short and uniform flax fibers. (Materials and methods) The studies were conducted using a new drying unit with air recirculation. Flax fibers were pre-moistened to a moisture content of 35-40 percent and loaded into the working chamber. Before drying, and then at one-minute intervals during the process, the fibers were weighed to monitor moisture loss. Additionally, the air temperature at the inlet and the outlet of the drying chamber, as well as in the mixing chamber, was measured before the start of the process and then at one-minute intervals. Experiments were conducted using various combinations of speed and flow rates for both incoming and outgoing air in the drying chamber. The initial temperature of the drying agent was 70-80 degrees Celsius, with a relative humidity of 5 percent. The average ambient temperature in the facility was 17 degrees Celsius, and the recirculation degree was 1.4. (Results and discussion) The drying duration of short flax fibers from a moisture of 30 to 14 percent is 1.3-1.9 minutes. Switching the airflow mode from injection to vacuum does not significantly affect the drying time; for effective drying, an air speed of 8-9 meters per second should be maintained. The temperature of the drying agent continuously increases, while the exhaust air temperature initially drops by 25-28 degrees Celsius before rising again. The temperature of the mixed air remains almost unchanged. (Conclusions) For the first time, optimal process parameters have been determined for drying short flax fibers in a new installation with air recirculation: a drying duration of 1.3-1.4 minutes, a drying agent temperature of 75-80 degrees Celsius, as well as ideal combinations of airflow rate and speed for both the incoming and outgoing air.

The paper highlights that for enhancing technological processes in grain crop breeding, a method for protecting seed material was proposed, accompanied by the development of a device for sowing seeds with unthreshed ears. This approach improves labor productivity during sowing and ensures varietal purity. However, challenges, such as ear jamming in seeder mechanisms and reduced seed productivity per ear were identified. To address these issues, the use of biodegradable polymeric materials, including polyvinyl alcohol and polylactide, is proposed for encapsulating ears sown with a spikelet seeder. (Research purpose) The paper examines the impact of encapsulating Rima wheat ears with biodegradable materials on the quality of sowing using a spikelet seeder and on seed productivity indicators. (Materials and methods) Sowing quality was evaluated using the coefficient of variation of distances between adjacent ears. Seed productivity was evaluated based on stem growth and development using the laboratory-vegetative method, as well as by analyzing the dynamics of plant biochemical composition with infrared spectroscopy. (Results and discussion) The study found that the average variation coefficient during seeding with a spikelet seeder was 15.5 percent for untreated control samples, 11.3 percent, for ears treated with polyvinyl alcohol, and 9.7 percent for those treated with polylactide. For manual seeding, the variation coefficient of control samples averaged 13.1 percent. By the 19th day, plants grown from ear seeds treated with polyvinyl alcohol exhibited growth indices 7 percent higher than the control samples, while those treated with polylactide showed a 13 percent decrease. Biochemical analysis revealed that plants grown from seeds of ears treated with polyvinyl alcohol showed a 19.3 percent increase in water content, a 42.9 percent increase in fats, a 57.2 percent increase in carbohydrates, and a 21.6 percent decrease in protein content compared to the control samples. For plants grown from seeds of ears treated with polylactide, fat content increased by 44.5 percent and carbohydrates by 60.3 percent, while water content decreased by 59.7percent and proteins by 9.3%, compared to the control samples. (Conclusions) The study demonstrates that encapsulating ears with biodegradable materials such as polyvinyl alcohol and polylactide is a promising solution for enhancing the sowing and yield qualities of seeds in grain crop breeding. This technology reduces the coefficient of variation in adjacent ear spacing during sowing, increases plant height, and improves nutrient content. Among the materials studied, polyvinyl alcohol proved to be the most effective for seed breeding due to its superior properties

Plant diseases reduce crop yields and can significantly undermine the sustainability of the agricultural sector. Early detection is crucial for effective disease control and management. An analysis of optical methods and devices for diagnosing plant infestations was carried out. (Research purpose) To develop a device for optical photoluminescence diagnostics of Fusarium infestation in cereal seeds. (Materials and methods) Fusarium-infected seeds of Irishka 172 winter wheat and Moskovsky 86 barley were studied. (Results and discussion) A universal device for measuring wheat and barley infestation must be equipped with three radiation sources, operating at wavelengths of 362, 424, and 485 nanometers. The VLMU3510-365-130 LED is most suitable for exciting luminescence at 362 nanometers, the CREELED424 LED is optimal for 424 nanometers, and the XPEBBL-L1 LED is ideal for 485 nanometers. The VEMD5510 photodiode was chosen to detect seed luminescence in the ranges of 390-550 and 510-670 nanometers, while the BPW21R photodiode was selected for the range of 450-600 nanometers. Additionally, a microcontroller, operational amplifier, display, keyboard and other components were also selected. A block diagram was developed that includes incorporating light-optical and electronic units, along with a power supply. During laboratory tests of the LUM VIM-1 device prototype, photosignal responses were observed at 362, 424 and 485 nanometers for wheat and barley seeds with varying infestation levels. The method for determining Fusarium infection includes sample preparation, excitation and detection of photoluminescence, amplification of the photoluminescence signal ratio, and calculation of infection levels using calibration equations. (Conclusions) Based on the energy efficiency criterion, radiation sources and receivers were selected for the device used in the express monitoring of Fusarium infection levels in wheat and barley seeds. During laboratory tests, previously obtained dependencies of seed photoluminescence fluxes on infection levels were confirmed, and the calibration characteristics of the developed device were refined.

Current trends in agriculture highlight the widespread adoption of information technology and Internet of Things (IoT) sensor networks for monitoring agrophysical soil parameters and phenotyping objects. This approach enables precise, real-time data analysis, optimizing agricultural processes and supporting the development of adaptive management systems. The integration of information technology with the monitoring of agrophysical parameters and phenotyping objects underscores the strategic importance of this approach, especially in the context of climate variability and the growing need to enhance production sustainability. (Research purpose) To develop an intelligent field sensor station for precision farming that ensures high-accuracy, real-time monitoring of agrophysical parameters and plant phenotyping using an Internet of Things sensor network. (Materials and methods) Existing methods for monitoring agrophysical parameters and phenotyping objects were analyzed. Based on these methods, a design for an intelligent field sensor station was developed, and suitable sensors were selected. (Results and discussion) The intelligent field sensor station successfully demonstrated its efficiency, confirming both its functionality and reliability in simultaneous data collection. The data collected on soil agrophysical parameters, meteorological conditions and plant phenotyping provide extensive knowledge for precision farming and optimizing agricultural processes. (Conclusions) Light gray forest soil with high porosity and neutral pH level provided favorable conditions for crops. Preliminary chemical analysis of the soil revealed moderate levels of organic matter, mobile phosphorus, and potassium, indicating a potentially fertile site. Meteorological data playeda key role in agrometeorological analysis, significantly impacting agricultural processes. The developed station introduces an innovative approach to monitoring agricultural parameters, offering promising prospects for modern agriculture.

The paper highlights that modeling the drying process of mustard seed samples using thermogravimetric moisture measurement enables the identification of the most effective design options for drying chambers. In this process, mustard seeds form a grain-air mixture with specific thermophysical properties. (Research purpose) To measure the key thermophysical coefficients of the mustard grain-air mixture at different moisture content levels and high temperatures. (Materials and methods) Mustard seed samples with moisture content ranging from 3.24 to 15.07 percent were used. The cylindrical layer method enables uniform heat distribution by positioning the heater at the center of the material layer. Experimental setups were designed to measure the thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity coefficients of the mustard seeds, while the volumetric and specific heat capacity coefficients were calculated. (Results and discussion) Graphs illustrating the dependence of thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, volumetric and specific heat capacity, as well as the bulk density of the mustard seed grain-air mixture on moisture content were constructed. Approximating functions for these dependencies were identified within the studied range. (Conclusions') In the moisture content ranged from 3.24 to 15.07 percent, the thermal conductivity coefficient of the mustard seed grain-air mixture increases from 0.156 to 0.176 kW/(m·K); the thermal diffusivity coefficient rises from 6.29·10^-8 to 7.70·10^-8 m²/s; while the volumetric heat capacity of the mixture decreases from 2490.8 to 2286.9 kJ/(m³·K). It was found that the bulk density initially increases within the same moisture content range, reaching a maximum at around 7.5 percent, and then decreases. Conversely, the specific heat capacity decreases to a minimum point at approximately 9 percent moisture content, and then begins to rise.

The paper examines the dependence of grain and crop production volumes on the availability and utilization of land resources in agriculture. (Research purpose) The study carries out a retrospective analysis of overarching trends and correlation between agricultural land area and the size of the tractor fleet. (Materials and methods) The analysis focuses on the evolution of land use systems and the integration of agricultural lands into economic turnover over three distinct historical periods in Russia: 1920-1940, 1945-1990, and 1991-2022. The study identifies key evolutionary factors and development patterns in the correlation between agricultural land area and tractor fleet capacity. (Results and discussion) The analysis reveals that the industrialization and collectivization programs implemented between 1928 and 1940 led to a significant expansion in agricultural land area, increasing from 113 million to 150 million hectares, and in the tractor fleet, which grew from 27,000 to 531,000 units. In 1945, the sown area reached a low of 113.8 million hectares, with the tractor fleet reduced to 397,000 units. By 1960, the development of virgin and fallow lands had expanded the sown area to 203 million hectares, and the tractor fleet had grown to 1,122,000 units. The study further identified that the highest recorded expansion in sown land area, reaching 210.3 million hectares, occurred in 1985 due to an increase in mechanization, with the tractor fleet peaking at 2,830,000 units. From 1991 to 2022, however, a steady decline in the tractor fleet led to the gradual withdrawal of agricultural land from use. In 1991, the tractor fleet stood at 1,344,200 units, but by 2022, it had decreased by 1,147,400 units, leaving only 196,800 units. The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the shift from a state-command to a market economy had a profound impact on the trajectory of Russian agricultural development. (Conclusions) The dynamics of soil use over different periods have reflected both extensive and intensive farming methods. The extensive approach involved expanding agricultural land by developing virgin, fallow, and unused lands. Currently, development follows the intensive path, marked by increased mechanization, automation, chemical use, and higher crop yields.

The paper highlights the achievements of domestic scientists, engineers and designers in pesticide application in agriculture. (Research purpose) The study provides a retrospective analysis of the evolution of plant protection technologies and mechanization tools in the Russian Federation. (Materials and methods) The research draws on a variety of sources, including publications in scientific journals, monographs, conference proceedings, archival photographs, and exhibits from the scientific and methodological office (museum) of the All-Russian Research Institute for Plant Protection. (Results and discussion) The paper details the development of domestic horse-drawn, mounted tractor, automobile field and portal garden sprayers in 1931-1941. In the 1960s, research focused on determining the optimal droplet size and phytocidal action radius for low-volume spraying of plant protection products. Aerosol technologies were developed. The paper highlights the contribution of Dr.Sc. V.F. Dunsky in establishing the theoretical foundations of fine-droplet and low-volume spraying physics and technology. It also emphasizes the development and enhancement of plant protection technologies by creating a comprehensive system of machines for agricultural mechanization. This progress was achieved under the scientific and methodological guidance of experts from the All-Russian Institute of Agricultural Mechanization. As the consumption rates of the working fluid decreased, rotary (disk) sprayers became essential for both ground and aerial spraying equipment. To enhance environmental safety, more eco-friendly sprayers were developed with systems for small droplet separation or forced sedimentation, and a method for electrically charging droplets was introduced. Modern approaches to the development of new plant protection technologies are based on the principles of precision farming. These approaches include differentiated crop treatment that considers the spatial heterogeneity in the distribution of harmful organisms within field areas. (Conclusions) Plant protection technologies and mechanization tools evolved and improved with the introduction of new chemical agents. Notably, spectrometry is used to create spectral image libraries of cultivated and weedy, healthy and diseased plants, facilitating the automatic decoding of data collected from field through neural networks (artificial intelligence). Additionally, unmanned aerial vehicles are utilized for the application of plant protection products.